Research

The NC-YVPC Research Team has published more than 50 professional journal articles, book chapters, and books. We have specialized in evidence-based program development, implementation, and evaluation. We hope that you find the research library below informative and useful.

NC-YVPC Impact

Following the implementation of program services and Center initiatives for the fiscal year, staff were expected to provide a matrix that included the number of participants referred & screened, admitted & served, and terminated. These metrics were fundamental in measuring the Center programs’ impact.  Each program is believed to improve the Center’s overall growth within its work providing quality services to the children, youth and families located in poor, rural counties identified by high rates of violence, poverty, unemployment, substance use, and high ACEs scores.

Reporting By The Numbers

During the lifetime of the Center (2010 to 2018), we have seen our partnerships, programs, services, and initiatives result in significant changes in Robeson County.

2010-18 Reductions for Robeson Youth:
– Total Complaints Against Juveniles down 58%
– Class A-E Complaints Against Juveniles down 89%
– Class F-I Complaints Against Juveniles down 57%
– Class 1-3 Complaints Against Juveniles down 55%
– Juveniles detained down 86%
– Delinquency in Robeson down 54%

In the 2019-2020 fiscal year, the Center:

• Served a combined total of 48 youth offenders in the Teen Court programs;
• Recruited and Trained 16 new Teen Court volunteers;
• Served 24 families in the Parenting Wisely program and established 4 partner agencies to conduct PW;
• Diverted 8 at-risk minority youth from a path to the criminal court system thus preventing confinement;
• Served 35 victims of crime(s) using individual trauma focused cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), of the 35 victims, 6 referred for sexual assault which allowed more intensive treatment with support of SASP;
• Served 15 additional underserved victims of crime through therapeutic services;
• Trained more than 120 professionals from NC and across the nation on bullying and victimization;
• Presented to 62 juvenile justice professionals on the understanding and impact of ACEs in at-risk youth;
• Recruited 15 youth for the SUPER Youth Advisory Council, 7 adults for the SUPER Adult Advisory Council;
• Presented to the National Associations for Restorative Justice the implementation of peer courts in schools;

Published Articles

Risk and Protective Factors

Ethnic Identity and Mental Health in American Indian Youth: Examining Mediation Pathways Through Self-esteem, and Future Optimism

Authors: Paul R. Smokowski • Caroline B. R. Evans • Katie L. Cotter • Kristina C. Webber

Abstract: Mental health functioning in American Indian youth is an understudied topic. Given the increased rates of depression and anxiety in this population, further research is needed. Using multiple group structural equation modeling, the current study illuminates the effect of ethnic identity on anxiety symptoms, depressive symptoms, and externalizing behavior in a group of Lumbee adolescents and a group of Caucasian, African American, and Latino/Hispanic adolescents.

Individual Characteristics, Microsystem Factors, and Proximal Relationship Processes Associated with Ethnic Identity in Rural Youth

Authors: Paul R. Smokowski • Caroline B. R. Evans • Katie L. Cotter

Abstract: Although strong ethnic identity is associated with positive psychological functioning and high academic achievement, few studies have examined factors associated with ethnic identity of rural youths. Social identity theory was used as a guide for the current study, integrating ecological systems theory to frame the study’s focus on how transactions and social relationships across microsystems relate to ethnic identity. This study uses hierarchical regression analysis to investigate which individual characteristics, microsystem factors, and proximal relational processes are associated with ethnic identity in a large sample of 3,418 rural students in Grades 6 through 8

Five Types of Child Maltreatment and Subsequent Delinquency: Physical Neglect as the Most Significant Predictor

Authors: Caroline B. R. Evans • David L. Burton

Abstract: Past researchers have often reported that childhood and adolescent maltreatment increases the likelihood of, or is related to, juvenile criminality. However, research examining how specific types of maltreatment (physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, physical neglect, emotional neglect) relate to later delinquent offense (violent crime, nonviolent crime, status offending, property offending) is minimal. The aim of this study was to augment and expand upon this scant literature.

Multi-Level Risk Factors and Developmental Assets Associated With Aggressive Behavior in Disadvantaged Adolescents

Authors: Caroline B. R. Evans • Paul R. Smokowski • Shenyang Guo • Katie L. Cotter • Roderick A. Rose

Abstract: The current study examined multilevel risk factors and developmental assets on longitudinal trajectories of aggressive behavior in a
diverse sample of rural adolescents. Using ecological and social capital theories, we explored the impact of positive and negative
proximal processes, social capital, and contextual characteristics (i.e., school and neighborhood) on adolescent aggression.

Testing the Nurturing Environments Framework on Youth Violence across Ethnically and Geographically Diverse Urban and Rural Samples of Adolescents

Authors: Caroline B. R. Evans • Paul R. Smokowski • Shenyang Guo • Katie L. Cotter • Roderick A. Rose

Abstract: We conduct two empirical tests of the nurturing environment framework on youth violence across ethnic and geographically diverse rural and urban adolescent samples. Results show that overall the characteristics of nurturing environments are associated with lower levels of aggression and violence. Additionally, minimizing exposure to socially toxic conditions had the strongest associations with lower aggression and violence.

Substance use in rural adolescents: The impact of social capital, anti-social capital, and social capital deprivation

Authors: Caroline B. R. Evans • Paul R. Smokowski • Katie L. Cotter • Roderick A. Rose

Abstract: Middle-and high-school substance use is a pressing public health problem in the United States. Despite similar or, in some cases, elevated rates of substance use among rural youth, much of the extant research on adolescent substance use has focused on urban areas. The current study aims to uncover forms of social capital (e.g., ethnic identity), social capital deprivation (e.g., parent-child conflict), and anti-social capital (e.g., delinquent friends) that impact the use of alcohol, cigarettes, and marijuana in a sample of middle- and high-school students from the rural south.

An Exploration of Differences in Childhood Maltreatment between Violent and Non-Violent Male Delinquents

Authors: Caroline I. B. Robertson • David L. Burton

Abstract: Using prospective data collected from a sample (N = 161) of male, incarcerated youth, we compared the maltreatment histories of violent (n = 59) and nonviolent (n = 78) offenders. We measured the frequency of physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, physical neglect, and emotional neglect for both groups. Data were analyzed using logistic regression.We found that violent offenders reported significantly greater frequency of physical neglect and sexual abuse and a higher total score on the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire than nonviolent offenders.

Measuring Adolescent Violent Behavior Across Groups: Assessing Measurement Invariance of the Violent Behavior Checklist–Modified

Authors: Katie L. Cotter • Caroline B. R. Evans • Paul R. Smokowski

Abstract: Measures of violent behavior are often assumed to function identically across different groups (e.g., gender, race/ethnicity). However, failure to verify measurement invariance can lead to biased cross-group comparisons. The current study examines the measurement invariance of the Violent Behavior Checklist–Modified across genders and race/ethnicities. Using multiple group confirmatory factor analysis, configural and metric invariance are assessed in a sample of racially/ethnically diverse middle and high school students (N = 4,128) in two rural counties.

Child and Adolescent Mental Health

Anxiety and Aggression in Rural Youth: Baseline Results from the Rural Adaptation Project

Authors: Caroline I. B. Robertson • Shenyang Guo • Katie L. Cotter • Paul R. Smokowski

Abstract: There is little research on the prevalence of and risk factors for mental health disorders, including anxiety and aggression, for low income, rural youth. The research that does exist suggests that rural youth may be at increased risk for negative outcomes, including low educational achievement, drug use and possession of weapons among gang members, and alcohol use. Using multilevel logistic regression, we examined individual, family, and school risk and protective factors for adolescent anxiety and aggression in a large, racially diverse sample of 4,321 middle school students who came from two impoverished, rural counties in a Southeastern state.

Ecological Correlates of Depression and Self-Esteem in Rural Youth

Authors: Caroline B. R. Evans • Shenyang Guo • Katie L. Cotter • Paul R. Smokowski

Abstract: The current study examines individual-, social-, and school-level characteristics influencing symptoms of depression and self-esteem among a large sample (N = 4,321) of U.S. youth living in two rural counties in the South. Survey data for this sample of middle-school students (Grade 6 to Grade 8) were part of the Rural Adaptation Project. Data were analyzed using ordered logistic regression. Results show that being female, having a low income, and having negative relationships with parents and peers are risk factors that increase the probability of reporting high levels of depressive symptoms and
low levels of self-esteem.

Risk and Protective Factors Across Multiple Microsystems Associated With Internalizing Symptoms and Aggressive Behavior in Rural Adolescents: Modeling Longitudinal Trajectories From the Rural Adaptation Project

Authors: Caroline B. R. Evans • Shenyang Guo • Katie L. Cotter • Paul R. Smokowski, Qi Wu, Roderick A. Rose, Martica Bacallao

Abstract: The current study examined risk and protective factors across microsystems that impact the development of internalizing symptoms and aggression over 4 years in a sample of culturally diverse, rural adolescents. We explored whether risk and protective factors across microsystems were associated with changes in rates of internalizing symptoms and aggressive behavior. Data came from the Rural Adaptation Project (RAP), a 5-year longitudinal panel study of more than 4,000 students from 26 public middle schools and 12 public high schools.

Familial influences on internalizing symptomatology in Latino adolescents: An ecological analysis of parent mental health and acculturation dynamics

Authors: Caroline B. R. Evans • Shenyang Guo • Katie L. Cotter • Paul R. Smokowski • Qi Wu, Roderick A. Rose • Martica Bacallao • Meredith Bower

Abstract: The aim of this study was to examine if family system dynamics (e.g., parent mental health, marriage quality, conflict, and cohesion) that have often been overlooked when studying Latino families play a more important role in predicting adolescent internalizing symptoms than acculturation processes. Data comes from the Latino Acculturation and Health Project, a longitudinal investigation of acculturation in Latino families in North Carolina and Arizona (Smokowski & Bacallao, 2006, 2010). Researchers conducted in-depth, community-based interviews with 258 Latino adolescents and 258 of their parents in metropolitan, small-town, and rural areas. Interviews were conducted at four time points at intervals of approximately 6 months.

Multilevel risk factors and developmental assets for internalizing symptoms and self-esteem in disadvantaged adolescents: Modeling longitudinal trajectories from the Rural Adaptation Project

Authors: Caroline B. R. Evans • Shenyang Guo • Katie L. Cotter • Paul R. Smokowski • Roderick A. Rose • Martica Bacallao

Abstract: The current study filled significant gaps in our knowledge of developmental psychopathology by examining the influence of multilevel risk factors and developmental assets on longitudinal trajectories of internalizing symptoms and self-esteem in an exceptionally culturally diverse sample of rural adolescents. Integrating ecological and social capital theories, we explored if positive microsystem transactions are associated with self-esteem while negative microsystem transactions increase the chances of internalizing problems. Data came from the Rural Adaptation Project, a 5-year longitudinal panel study of more than 4,000 middle school students from 28 public schools in two rural, disadvantaged counties in North Carolina.

Measuring Adolescent Violent Behavior Across Groups: Assessing Measurement Invariance of the Violent Behavior Checklist–Modified

Authors: Caroline B. R. Evans • Katie L. Cotter • Paul R. Smokowski

Abstract: Measures of violent behavior are often assumed to function identically across different groups (e.g., gender, race/ethnicity). However, failure to verify measurement invariance can lead to biased cross-group comparisons. The current study examines the measurement invariance of the Violent Behavior Checklist–Modified across genders and race/ethnicities. Using multiple group confirmatory factor analysis, configural and metric invariance are assessed in a sample of racially/ethnically diverse middle and high school students (N = 4,128) in two rural counties.

Bullying

Demographic, Psychological, and School Environment Correlates of Bullying Victimization and School Hassles in Rural Youth

Authors: Caroline Robertson • Katie L. Cotter • Paul R. Smokowski • Shenyang Guo

Abstract: Little is known about bullying in rural areas.The participants in this study included 3,610 racially diverse youth (average age = 12.8) from 28 rural schools who completed the School Success Profile-Plus. Binary logistic regression models were created to predict bullying victimization in the past 12 months, and ordered logistic regression was used to predict school hassles in the past 12 months. Overall, 22.71% of the sample experienced bullying victimization and school victimization rates ranged from 11% to 38%. Risk factors for bullying victimization included younger students and students experiencing depression and anxiety. Being female, Hispanic/Latino or African American, was associated with lower bullying victimization. Thirty-nine percent of the sample reported a high level of school hassles.

Theoretical Explanations for Bullying in School: How Ecological Processes Propagate Perpetration and Victimization

Authors: Caroline B. R. Evans • Paul R. Smokowski

Abstract: Bullying is a complex social dynamic that can best be understood by using various theoretical frameworks. The current article uses social capital theory, dominance theory, the theory of humiliation, and organizational culture theory to better understand the motivations behind bullying behavior, bullying’s negative effects on victims, and how school culture and climate play a role in the prevalence of bullying. Specifically, the acquisition and maintenance of social capital and the desire for dominance are prime motivating factors for the initiation and continuation of bullying perpetration.

Understanding Weaknesses in bullying research: How school personnel can help strengthen bullying research and practice

Authors: Caroline B. R. Evans • Paul R. Smokowski

Abstract: School personnel (teachers, administrators, counselors, staff, and social workers) would greatly benefit from a stronger understanding of bullying dynamics. In order to heighten their understanding,we must strengthen bullying research. Despite more than 40 years of bullying research, a number of methodological weaknesses continue to plague the field of bullying. First, there is a lack of a common definition of bullying, making it difficult to compare results across studies. Second, some researchers use one-item measures of bullying, a practice that lacks content validity and fails to assess the entire scope of the bullying dynamic. Third, many measures fail to assess all forms of bullying. Fourth, researchers often fail to provide a definition of bullying or to even include the word “bullying” in their measures, thus conflating the measurement of bullying and aggression.

The effectiveness of school-based bullying prevention programs: A systematic review

Authors: Caroline B. R. Evans • Mark W. Fraser • Katie L. Cotter

Abstract: Bullying is a social phenomenon. About 30% of school children are involved in bullying as victims, bullies, or bully/victims. The victims of bullying suffer multiple negative consequences, including poor social and academic adjustment, depression, and anxiety. This paper extends Farrington and Ttofi’s (2009) meta-analysis of controlled trials of 44 bullying interventions, which suggests that bullying programs are effective in decreasing bullying and victimization. We review controlled trials of bullying interventions published from June, 2009 through April, 2013, focusing on substantive results across 32 studies that examined 24 bullying interventions. Of the 32 articles, 17 assess both bullying and victimization, 10 assess victimization only, and 5 assess bullying only. Of the 22 studies examining bullying perpetration, 11 (50%) observed significant effects; of the 27 studies examining bullying victimization, 18 (67%) reported significant effects.

The Differential Impacts of Episodic, Chronic, and Cumulative Physical Bullying and Cyberbullying: The Effects of Victimization on the School Experiences, Social Support, and Mental Health of Rural Adolescents

Authors: Paul R. Smokowski • Caroline B. R. Evans • Katie L. Cotter

Abstract: Few studies have examined the impacts of past, current, and chronic physical bullying and cyberbullying on youth, especially in rural settings. This study augments this scant literature by exploring the school experiences, social support, and mental health outcomes for rural, middle school youth. The participants for this 2-year longitudinal study were 3,127 youth from 28 middle schools. Participants were classified as nonvictims, past victims (i.e., victimized during Year 1 but not Year 2), current victims (i.e., victimized during Year 2 but not Year 1), and chronic victims (i.e., victimized during both Year 1 and Year 2). Findings illustrated that chronic victimization resulted in the lowest levels of school satisfaction, social support, future optimism, and self-esteem.

Cumulative bullying victimization: An investigation of the dose– response relationship between victimization and the associated mental health outcomes, social supports, and school experiences of rural adolescents

Authors: Paul R. Smokowski • Caroline B. R. Evans • Katie L. Cotter

Abstract: Bullying victimization is a common experience for adolescents. Past research documents that victims have more negative mental health outcomes, social relationships, and school experiences compared to their non-victimized classmates. However, this research is largely cross-sectional, often lacks youth living in rural areas, and does not explore the longitudinal burden that victimization places on adolescent development. Further, few researchers
have examined bullying victimization using a dose–response model; the dose model posits that more exposure to a stimuli presents a greater impact. The current study examines how cumulative experiences of traditional and cyber victimization over a three year period are associated with the mental health, social relationships, and school experiences of 2246 middle and high school students in two low income, rural counties in the south. Regression analysis confirms that increased victimization was associated with more negative mental health functioning, social relationships, and school experiences. Implications are discussed.

Bullied Youth: The Impact of Bullying Through Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Name Calling

Authors: Caroline B. R. Evans • Mimi V. Chapman

Abstract: Bullying is a common experience for many school-aged youth, but the majority of bullying research and intervention does not address the content of bullying behavior, particularly teasing. Understanding the various forms of bullying as well as the language used in bullying is important given that bullying can have persistent consequences, particularly for victims who are bullied through biased-based bullying, such as being called gay, lesbian, or queer. This study examines bullying experiences in a racially and ethnically diverse sample of 3,379 rural elementary-, middle-, and high-school youth. We use latent class analysis to establish clusters of bullying behaviors, including forms of biased-based bullying.

Negative Bystander Behavior in Bullying Dynamics: Assessing the Impact of Social Capital Deprivation and Anti-social Capital

Authors: Caroline B. R. Evans • Paul R. Smokowski

Abstract: Bystanders witness bullying, but are not directly involved as a bully or victim; however, they often engage in negative bystander behavior. This study examines how social capital deprivation and anti-social capital are associated with the likelihood of engaging in negative bystander behavior in a sample (N = 5752) of racially/ethnically diverse rural youth. Data were collected using an online, youth self-report; the current study uses cross sectional data.

Prosocial Bystander Behavior in Bullying Dynamics: Assessing the Impact of Social Capital

Authors: Caroline B. R. Evans • Paul R. Smokowski

Abstract: Individuals who observe a bullying event, but are not directly involved as a bully or victim, are referred to as bystanders. Prosocial bystanders are those individuals who actively intervene in bullying dynamics to support the victim and this prosocial behavior often ends the bullying. The current study examines how social capital in the form of social support, community engagement, mental health functioning, and positive school experiences and characteristics is associated with the likelihood of engaging in prosocial bystander behavior in a large sample (N = 5752; 51.03 % female) of racially/ethnically diverse rural youth.

Giving Victims of Bullying a Voice: A Qualitative Study of Post Bullying Reactions and Coping Strategies

Authors: Caroline B. R. Evans • Paul R. Smokowski • Kate L. Cotter

Abstract: Current research on how adolescents cope with bullying is primarily quantitative, examines youth in Grades 1 through 6, and neglects to specifically assess how victims of bullying cope with being bullied. The current qualitative study explored the coping strategies of 22 rural middle- and high-school youth victimized by bullying. Results indicated that youth report using an array of emotion focused coping strategies (an internal coping strategy that focuses on emotion regulation) and problem focused coping strategies (active behaviors that are aimed to decrease or eradicate the stressor). These coping strategies included help seeking, physical and verbal aggression, standing up for themselves, and prosocial bystander behavior.

Contextual Predictors of Perception of School Danger among Rural Youths: Baseline Results from the Rural Adaptation Project

Authors: Caroline B. R. Evans • Paul R. Smokowski • Kate L. Cotter

Abstract: Students’ perceptions of school danger have been associated with several negative academic, behavioral, and developmental outcomes. However, little research has focused on which contextual factors influence rural youths’ perceptions of school danger. Through hierarchical regression analyses, the study presented in this article explored the relative importance of parent, peer, school experience, and neighborhood factors in predicting perception of school danger in a sample of low-income, ethnically diverse, rural youths.

Intervention and Evaluation

Scaling Up a Multifaceted Violence Prevention Package: County-Level Impact of the North Carolina Youth Violence Prevention Center

Authors: Caroline B. R. Evans • Paul R. Smokowski • Kate L. Cotter • Shenyang Guo

Abstract: Multifaceted approaches to youth-violence prevention package evidence-based programs into initiatives that yield large-scale impact. This study assessed the impact of a package of evidence-based violence prevention programs, implemented as part of the North Carolina Youth Violence Prevention Center, on county-level violence indicators.

The North Carolina Youth Violence Prevention Center: Using a Multifaceted, Ecological Approach to Reduce Youth Violence in Impoverished, Rural Areas

Authors: Caroline B. R. Evans • Paul R. Smokowski • Kate L. Cotter • Shenyang Guo • Martica L. Bacallao • Rodderick A. Rose • Katie C. Stalker • Qi Wu • James Barbee • Meredith Bower

Abstract: Youth violence is best tackled through a multifaceted approach targeting risk and protective factors at multiple ecological levels. The North Carolina Youth Violence Prevention Center (NC-YVPC) is an example of such an approach. This article provides a comprehensive synthesis of NC-YVPC design, implementation, and results. Method: NC-YVPC packaged and implemented 3 evidence based programs to decrease youth violence in a rural North Carolina community where violence was prevalent.

Parenting Interventions Implementation Science: How Delivery Format Impacts the Parenting Wisely Program

Authors: Caroline I. B. Robertson • Paul R. Smokowski • Kate L. Cotter • Martica Bacallao

Abstract: Objectives: This study examines the implementation and effectiveness of Parenting Wisely, an Internet-based parenting skills intervention. The study assesses whether parents benefit from Parenting Wisely participation and whether the delivery format influences program effectiveness. Method: This study uses a quasi-experimental design. Participating parents (N ¼ 144) come from a rural, impoverished, ethnically diverse county in a Southeastern state. The intervention is delivered via four formats: parents only intensive workshop, parents-only 5-week group, parent and adolescent 5-week group, and parent and adolescent online format.

Evaluating Dosage Effects for the Positive Action Program: How Implementation Impacts Internalizing Symptoms, Aggression, School Hassles, and Self-Esteem

Authors: Shenyang Guo • Paul R. Smokowski • Qi Wu • Caroline B.R. Evans • Katie L. Cotter • Martica Bacallao

Abstract: Positive Action (PA) is an intervention implemented in elementary, middle, and high school that aims to improve academic achievement, school attendance, problem behaviors (e.g., substance use, violence, disruptive behaviors, dropping out of school, sexual behavior), parent– child bonding, family cohesion, and family conflict (National Registry of Evidence-Based Programs and Practices, 2014). The PA curriculum consists of a series of kits, with age-appropriate lesson plans and materials that assist teachers in guiding students through PA.

Modeling Ecological Risk, Health Promotion, and Prevention Program Effects for Rural Adolescents

Authors: Shenyang Guo • Paul R. Smokowski • Qi Wu • Caroline B.R. Evans • Katie C. Stalker • Martica Bacallao

Abstract: Positive Action (PA) is an intervention implemented in elementary, middle, and high school that aims to improve academic achievement, school attendance, problem behaviors (e.g., substance use, violence, disruptive behaviors, dropping out of school, sexual behavior), parent– child bonding, family cohesion, and family conflict (National Registry of Evidence-Based Programs and Practices, 2014). The PA curriculum consists of a series of kits, with age-appropriate lesson plans and materials that assist teachers in guiding students through PA.

A Longitudinal Evaluation of the Positive Action Program in a Low-Income, Racially Diverse, Rural County: Effects on Self-Esteem, School Hassles, Aggression, and Internalizing Symptoms

Authors: Shenyang Guo • Paul R. Smokowski • Qi Wu • Caroline B.R. Evans • Katie L. Cotter • Martica Bacallao

Abstract: Positive Action is a school-based program that aims to decrease problem behaviors (e.g., violence, substance use) and increase positive behaviors (e.g., school engagement, academic achievement). Although a number of studies have shown that Positive Action successfully achieves these goals, few studies have evaluated the program’s effectiveness in rural schools. Given that rural youth are at an increased risk for risky behaviors (e.g., violence, substance use), this is a critical gap in the existing Positive Action research base. The current study assesses the impact of Positive Action on change rates of self-esteem, school hassles, aggression, and internalizing symptoms in a racially diverse group.

Implementing School Based Youth Courts in a Rural Context: The Impact on Students’ Perceptions of School Climate, Individual Functioning, and Interpersonal Relationships

Authors: Heather Wing • Meredith Bower • Paul R. Smokowski • James Barbee • Caroline B.R. Evans • Martica Bacallao

Abstract: The Youth Court in Schools Project was implemented in two low-income, violent, racially/ethnically diverse rural counties. This study examined if the presence of Youth Court impacted students’ perceptions of school danger, individual functioning, and interpersonal relationships. Data were gathered from 3454 youth; following multiple imputation, data were analyzed using paired samples t tests. Results indicated that perceptions of school danger increased significantly and self-esteem decreased significantly in the control schools pretest to posttest. Violent behavior, anxiety, friend rejection, and bullying victimization decreased significantly in the Youth Court intervention
schools pretest to posttest, but did not change significantly in the control schools. Findings provide preliminary evidence that Youth Court is an effective way of improving school climate, individual functioning, and interpersonal relationships.

Parenting

The Effects of Positive and Negative Parenting Practices on Adolescent Mental Health Outcomes in a Multicultural Sample of Rural Youth

Authors: Paul R. Smokowski • Martica L. Bacallao • Katie L. Cotter • Caroline B.R. Evans

Abstract: The quality of parent–child relationships has a significant impact on adolescent developmental outcomes, especially mental health. Given the lack of research on rural adolescent mental health in general and rural parent–
child relationships in particular, the current longitudinal study explores how rural adolescents’ (N = 2,617) perceptions of parenting practices effect their mental health (i.e., anxiety, depression, aggression, self-esteem, future optimism, and school satisfaction) over a 1 year period. Regression models showed that current parenting practices (i.e., in Year 2) were strongly associated with current adolescent mental health outcomes. Negative current parenting, manifesting in parent–adolescent conflict, was related to higher adolescent anxiety, depression, and aggression and lower self-esteem, and school satisfaction. Past parent–adolescent conflict (i.e., in Year 1) also positively predicted adolescent aggression in the present. Current positive parenting (i.e., parent support, parent–child future orientation, and parent education support) was significantly associated with less depression and higher self-esteem, future optimism, and school satisfaction. Past parent education support was also related to current adolescent future optimism. Implications for practice and limitations were discussed.

Familial influences on internalizing symptomatology in Latino adolescents: An ecological analysis of parent mental health and acculturation dynamics

Authors: Paul R. Smokowski • Martica L. Bacallao • Katie L. Cotter • Caroline B.R. Evans • Meredith Bower • Roderick A. Rose

Abstract: The aim of this study was to examine if family system dynamics (e.g., parent mental health, marriage quality, conflict, and cohesion) that have often been overlooked when studying Latino families play a more important role in predicting adolescent internalizing symptoms than acculturation processes. Data comes from the Latino Acculturation and Health Project, a longitudinal investigation of acculturation in Latino families in North Carolina and Arizona
(Smokowski & Bacallao, 2006, 2010). Researchers conducted in-depth, community-based interviews with 258 Latino adolescents and 258 of their parents in metropolitan, small-town, and rural areas. Interviews were conducted at four time points at intervals of approximately 6 months. Parent and adolescent ratings of the adolescent’s internalizing symptoms were used as the dependent variable in a longitudinal hierarchical linear model with a rater effects structure. Results showed that parent–adolescent conflict and parent mental health (fear/avoidance of social situations and humiliation sensitivity) were significant predictors of adolescent internalizing symptoms. Acculturation scales were not significant predictors; however, internalizing symptoms decreased with time spent in the United States. Females and adolescents from lower socioeconomic status families reported more internalizing symptoms, while participants who had been in the United States longer reported fewer internalizing symptoms. Implications were discussed.

Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology: Family Dynamics and Aggressive Behavior in Latino Adolescents

Authors: Paul R. Smokowski • Martica L. Bacallao • Katie L. Cotter • Caroline B.R. Evans • Roderick A. Rose

Abstract: Objectives: Despite high prevalence rates and evidence that acculturation is associated with adolescent behavioral and mental health in Latino youth, little research has focused on aggressive behavior for this population. The aim of the current study was to fill this research gap by examining the influence of several aspects of family functioning, including parent–adolescent conflict, parent worry, and parent marital adjustment, on aggression among Latino adolescents. Method: Data come from the Latino Acculturation and Health Project (LAHP), a longitudinal investigation of acculturation in Latino families in North Carolina and Arizona. Hierarchical linear modeling was used to estimate a longitudinal rater effects model of adolescent aggression as reported by 258 Latino adolescents each paired with 1 parent for a total of 516 participants across 4 time points over a span of 18 months. Results: Results indicated a general decline in aggression over the study window. In addition, parent–adolescent conflict and parent worry predicted higher adolescent aggression whereas parent marital adjustment predicted lower adolescent aggression. Conclusions: The salience of family risk factors for aggression among Latino adolescents is discussed.

Parents as Teachers (PAT) home-visiting intervention: A path to improved academic outcomes, school behavior, and parenting skills

Authors: Michel Lahti • Greg Goodman • Michele Cranwell Schmidt • Caroline B.R. Evans • Craig W. LeCroy

Abstract: The time from conception to young childhood is crucial in terms of brain, social, emotional, and cognitive development. Given the impact that parenting has on child developmental outcomes, home-visiting programs may be a viable means of improving parenting and thus increasing positive child developmental outcomes. Parents as Teachers (PAT) is a home visitation program that promotes parenting skills and abilities to improve parenting skills and child development outcomes. The current study used a matched comparison group quasi experimental design and assessed three years of academic and school disciplinary data from a school district in Arizona to determine the impact of PAT on student reading, math, and English Language skills as well as absence rates and school suspension rates relative to a non-PAT group of students. Further, the study examined whether the program influenced parenting behavior. Findings indicated that compared to the non-PAT control group, the PAT student group performed better in terms of reading and math achievement and had a significantly lower rate of absenteeism, in-school-suspensions, and out-of-school-suspension. Further, PAT parents showed increased scores on parenting measures at post-test relative to pre-test. Taken together, findings indicate that participation in the PAT program is a viable means for improving child academic outcomes and school behavior
and improving parenting behavior. Implications for future research are discussed.